Witch Hunts Then & Now: Myths and True Origins
They are not a relic of a superstitious past; they were, and still are, a brutal tool wielded in times of social and economic breakdown, upheaval and fear.
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We think we know the story of the witch. Images flicker in our minds – cackling women around cauldrons, the fiery pyres of Salem, perhaps a pointy hat or two for good measure. But like so much of what passes for common knowledge, the truth is far more unsettling, more persistent, and speaks volumes about the fault lines in our own supposedly enlightened world.
The academic consensus, when it bothers to look beyond the sensationalized narratives, points to a grim reality: witch hunts are not relics of a superstitious past; they are a recurring symptom of social and economic breakdown, a brutal tool wielded in times of upheaval and fear. The whispers of accusation that led to Iquo Edet Eyo’s horrific death in Nigeria in 2022, because of a motorcycle crash blamed on her alleged witchcraft, echo across centuries and continents. As Scientific American makes chillingly clear, the narrative could just as easily be set in 16th-century Germany, 21st-century India, or countless other places where the label of "witch" becomes a death sentence. Far from fading with modernization, these persecutions persist, and in some regions, may even be on the rise.
Why? Because the roots of the witch hunt are not solely planted in irrational fear. They intertwine with tangible societal stresses: a belief in sorcery, yes, but also patriarchal structures, sudden deaths exacerbated by lack of healthcare, dysfunctional justice systems that embolden attackers, and triggering disasters. But underpinning these factors, the scholars Silvia Federici and Alice Markham-Cantor argue, is a consistent “backdrop of social and economic dislocation”.
Consider the “Great Hunt” of witches in Europe. Popular imagination often frames it as a period of mass hysteria. Yet, as the Scientific American piece notes, its peak between the 1580s and 1630s coincided with a time of “massive upheaval as a capitalist economy emerged”. This wasn’t a random outbreak of madness; it was a consequence of fundamental shifts in how society was organized and who held power.
The transition from feudalism, where peasants had access to common lands and women enjoyed a degree of economic independence as brewers, bakers, and even doctors, to a burgeoning capitalist system had devastating consequences for the marginalized. The enclosure of previously communal fields and forests, a process that intensified in the 1500s, dispossessed entire communities, leaving them with few options but wage labor. Older women, who previously held rights to land and gleaning after the death of their husbands, were particularly vulnerable, often left dependent on charity and deemed “unproductive” in this new order.
The influx of silver from the “New World” further exacerbated the situation, triggering skyrocketing inflation and collapsing wages. Women, traditionally responsible for feeding their families, bore the brunt of this economic hardship. In this climate of scarcity and desperation, the figure of the witch provided a convenient scapegoat. Accusations often targeted those already on the fringes – older, poorer women without male protectors, those who defied social norms, or even those who simply owned a small piece of land that a neighbor coveted.
The accusations themselves, as illustrated by the case of 65-year-old Margaret Harkett, reveal the petty resentments and anxieties of a society under strain. A basket of peas picked without permission, denied yeast leading to spoiled brewing, a bailiff going mad after striking her – these were the “crimes” that could lead to a death by hanging. While not all accused were poor, the possibility of judges seizing the property of the accused provided a clear incentive for some to perpetuate the hunts. And the chilling effect on the wider population, particularly women, was profound, limiting their social and economic roles and reinforcing a new patriarchal order. Even female friendships became suspect, with “gossip” transforming from ordinary conversation to potential evidence of witchcraft.
It's crucial to dispel the romanticized notions of witches as goddess-worshipping herbalist midwives. As Professor Diane Purkiss of Oxford University points out, there’s no historical evidence of widespread goddess worship during the witch hunt era. Midwives were rarely accused; in fact, they often participated in identifying so-called "witch marks". And contrary to popular belief, witches in English-speaking countries were typically hanged, not burned, although their bodies might be burned afterward in Scotland. The numbers of executed individuals, while still horrific, were in the tens of thousands, not the mythical millions often cited.
The uncomfortable truth is that the dynamics that fueled historical witch hunts are disturbingly present today. In the Global South, as governments and corporations seize land for development projects, displacing millions, a new wave of enclosures is creating similar social and economic fractures. Anthropologist Justus Ogembo’s research in Kenya directly links the surge in witch-hunting in the 1990s to the implementation of stringent IMF loan conditions that slashed public spending and removed price controls, exacerbating poverty and creating a climate of blame. Similarly, in Zambia, Hugo Hinfelaar notes that witchcraft allegations were particularly prevalent in areas targeted for game management and tourism, suggesting a link between resource competition and accusations. Even the seizure of land from upper-caste individuals in 19th-century British India led to the blaming and persecution of Dalit women accused of witchcraft – a clear case of the dispossessed “punching down”.
The modern manifestations are often brutally direct. In India, land grabs are explicitly linked to witch hunts. In Kenya, elderly men are accused to expedite inheritance and the sale of their land. In Nigeria, a woman with land and financial support from family abroad becomes a target of deadly accusations fueled by jealousy. Professional witch finders, sometimes doubling as pastors, further exploit these anxieties for financial gain, charging exorbitant fees or seizing land from those accused.
Leo Igwe, founder of Advocacy for Alleged Witches in Nigeria, astutely observes that when social welfare programs are cut, witchcraft accusations tend to increase. The less support the state provides, the more people resort to scapegoating the vulnerable – the disabled, children, the elderly, women. The conflict over resources, whether land, gold mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo, or even perceived future wealth, provides fertile ground for accusations and violence.
But just as there was resistance in the past, there is resistance today. Women and organizations worldwide are fighting back against witch-hunting, advocating for legal reforms and providing support to victims. Initiatives focused on securing land rights for marginalized communities and providing pensions for the elderly have shown promise in reducing these persecutions by offering a safety net and challenging the underlying economic vulnerabilities.
Perhaps the most crucial lesson from the history of witch hunts, both past and present, is that they are not simply about irrational beliefs. They are deeply intertwined with social and economic justice. The undying shadow of the witch hunt serves as a stark reminder of what happens when societies fracture, resources become scarce, and the powerful seek to maintain their dominance by scapegoating the vulnerable. Until we address the underlying inequalities and insecurities that fuel these accusations, the echoes of the past will continue to resonate in the present, and the stories of innocent lives lost to fear and greed will remain a haunting indictment of our so-called progress.
References:
How Social Turmoil Has Increased Witch Hunts throughout History
Witchcraft: Eight Myths and Misconceptions
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STUDY MATERIALS
1. Briefing Document
Executive Summary:
This briefing document synthesizes information from two sources to provide a detailed overview of witch hunts, both historically and in the contemporary world. The Scientific American article focuses on the underlying social and economic factors that contribute to the emergence and persistence of witch hunts across different times and cultures, highlighting the role of social turmoil, economic upheaval, and land dispossession. It argues against the notion that witch hunts declined with modernization and presents evidence of their ongoing occurrence, particularly in the Global South. The English Heritage document, on the other hand, directly addresses common myths and misconceptions surrounding historical witchcraft accusations and trials in England and Europe, offering crucial corrections to popular understandings. Together, these sources provide a comprehensive picture, revealing the complex interplay of societal forces, beliefs, and historical realities associated with witch hunts.
Main Themes and Important Ideas:
1. The Enduring Nature of Witch Hunts:
Contrary to the expectation of decline with modernization, witch hunts persist in the modern era and may even be increasing in some regions. As stated in Scientific American, "Far from declining with modernization, as some 20th-century scholars predicted, witch hunts are holding steady in some places and may be happening more often in others."
The narrative of a woman accused by someone close due to resentment, envy, or property disputes, followed by accusations escalating after misfortunes occur, leading to violence and death, remains a tragic reality in many parts of the world today, as exemplified by the case of Iquo Edet Eyo in Nigeria.
2. Socio-Economic Dislocation as a Key Driver:
The Scientific American article strongly argues that "what sustained periods of witch-hunting have in common, across time, space and culture, is a backdrop of social and economic dislocation."
Historically, the transition from subsistence economies to monetary and capitalistic systems, marked by the privatization of common lands and the displacement of rural populations, created social unrest and provided fertile ground for witch hunts. "During these times the powerful and the wealthy were privatizing fields, ponds and forests previously held as commons, evicting villagers from the natural resources that had sustained them for centuries. Close-knit communities with relatively self-sufficient economies disintegrated, leaving the newly dispossessed with wage work as the only option for survival. This disruption of rural society caused bitter conflicts between the emerging classes of haves and have-nots that in places manifested as witch hunts."
This pattern continues in the modern era, with government and corporate appropriation of land for development projects leading to displacement, increased inequality, and social conflict, which can trigger or exacerbate witch accusations.
3. Gender and Power Dynamics:
Historically, women, particularly older and economically vulnerable women, were disproportionately targeted as witches. This was often linked to their loss of economic and social power during periods of capitalist expansion and the breakdown of traditional support systems. "Among the worst affected were older women, who in the new dispensation were regarded as unproductive. Lacking social support and believed to have destructive magical powers, in many places they came to be targeted as witches."
Witch hunts have historically contributed to the degradation and limitation of women's roles in society. "The persecutions contributed to the construction of a new patriarchal divide that degraded and limited women, ranking them below men."
Modern witch hunts also disproportionately affect marginalized groups, including women, children, and the elderly, who are often scapegoated during times of economic hardship and social instability.
4. The Role of Belief Systems and Scapegoating:
A belief in sorcery and the desire to find explanations and scapegoats for misfortune (illness, accidents, economic hardship) are crucial elements in the development of witch hunts. "Multiple roots entwine to produce a witch hunt. A belief in sorcery, a patriarchal society, sudden and mysterious deaths resulting from a paucity of health care, inaccessible justice systems that give impunity to attackers, a triggering disaster—all of these contribute."
In the modern context, the weakening of social welfare programs can exacerbate scapegoating, with vulnerable populations being targeted when people seek to explain their struggles. As Leo Igwe notes, "The less the presence of the state in people's lives...the more of people scapegoating the disabled, scapegoating children, scapegoating the elderly, scapegoating women."
5. Economic Gain and Land Seizure:
Historically, witch hunts were sometimes motivated by the desire of authorities and individuals to seize the property of the accused. "Not all alleged witches were poor and landless, however...authorities also used accusations of witchcraft to seize the property of the accused."
This motivation persists in contemporary witch hunts, with land grabbing being a significant factor in some regions. "Around the world witch hunts have also been used to directly seize land." The example of Kenya, where elderly men are accused to facilitate the sale of their land by family members, illustrates this point.
6. Correction of Historical Misconceptions:
The English Heritage document directly challenges several common myths about witch hunts in English-speaking countries and Europe:
Burning at the stake was not the primary method of execution in England and its colonies. "Witchcraft was a felony in both England and its American colonies, and therefore witches were hanged, not burned." Burning did occur in Scotland, but after strangulation.
The number of executions was far lower than often claimed. Instead of millions, the estimated number of executions during the main era of persecutions was between 30,000 and 60,000 across Europe. "About 30,000–60,000 people were executed in the whole of the main era of witchcraft persecutions..."
Accused individuals had some chance of acquittal in England. "Only 25 per cent of those tried across the period in England were found guilty and executed."
The total number of people tried in England was relatively small. "The total number of people tried for witchcraft in England throughout the period of persecution was no more than 2,000."
The Spanish Inquisition was not a primary instigator of witch trials. All major Western Christian denominations participated to some degree, but the Spanish Inquisition executed very few. "The Spanish Inquisition executed only two witches in total."
King James I's role is often overstated. More executions occurred in the last decade of Elizabeth I's reign than under James I in England.
While women were the majority of accused in England, men were also accused and executed. "Across Europe, in the years of witch persecution around 6,000 men – 10 to 15 per cent of the total – were executed for witchcraft."
The idea of "goddess-worshipping herbalist midwives" being the primary targets is a myth. There is no historical evidence of widespread goddess worship, and midwives were rarely accused. "The idea that those accused of witchcraft were midwives or herbalists...is a myth. Midwives were rarely accused."
7. Resistance and Efforts to Combat Witch Hunts:
Despite the dangers, individuals and organizations are actively working to combat modern-day witch hunts. "Around the world women and organizations such as AfAW, Stop Sorcery Violence in Papua New Guinea and the women's leadership nonprofit Anandi in Gujarat, India, are fighting back against witch-hunting."
Legal measures, such as laws against witch-hunting, and social protection measures, like providing pensions to the elderly, are being implemented to help reduce persecutions.
A fundamental response involves addressing the underlying issues of land dispossession and wealth concentration through grassroots movements focused on reclaiming and protecting resources.
Conclusion:
The phenomenon of witch hunts, both historical and contemporary, is deeply intertwined with social, economic, and political forces. While popular perceptions of historical witch hunts are often inaccurate, the Scientific American article reveals the disturbing reality that accusations and violence related to witchcraft persist in many parts of the world, frequently fueled by economic inequality, land disputes, and the scapegoating of vulnerable populations during times of societal stress. Understanding the complex historical context and the ongoing drivers of witch hunts is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent these tragic events and protect those at risk.
2. Quiz & Answer Key
Key Themes and Concepts
Social and Economic Dislocation: Understand how periods of significant societal and economic change, such as the transition from feudalism to capitalism, the privatization of common lands, inflation, and the implementation of austerity measures, correlate with increases in witch hunts.
Gender and Power Dynamics: Analyze the role of patriarchal societies and shifting gender roles in the targeting of women during witch hunts, including the loss of economic independence and social power.
Scapegoating and Blame Attribution: Explore how individuals and groups are targeted as scapegoats during times of crisis, and how accusations of witchcraft serve to explain misfortune, illness, and economic hardship.
Belief Systems and Superstition: Recognize the influence of belief in sorcery, magic, and the Devil on the perception and prosecution of witchcraft, while also understanding the skepticism present in some legal systems.
Political and Legal Context: Examine the involvement of religious and secular authorities in initiating, perpetuating, and eventually curtailing witch hunts, including the evolution of laws and judicial processes.
Modern Parallels: Identify the continuities between historical and contemporary witch hunts, particularly in relation to land disputes, resource competition, and the scapegoating of marginalized groups.
Myth vs. Reality of Witchcraft Persecutions: Differentiate between popular misconceptions about witch hunts (e.g., burning at the stake in England, the number of victims, the role of midwives) and the historical realities.
Resistance and Activism: Learn about the efforts of individuals and organizations to combat modern witch hunts and advocate for the rights of accused individuals.
Short-Answer Quiz
According to the Scientific American article, what are some of the immediate triggers or accusations that often precede a witch hunt incident?
How did the rise of capitalism and the privatization of common lands in Europe contribute to social tensions that manifested as witch hunts?
What was the role of older women in medieval European society, and how did changes during the expansion of capitalism make them particularly vulnerable to accusations of witchcraft?
According to the English Heritage article, what was the primary method of execution for those convicted of witchcraft in England and its American colonies? How did this differ in Scotland?
The English Heritage article debunks the myth of millions of witches being killed. What is the estimated range of executions during the main era of witchcraft persecutions?
According to the Scientific American article, how do modern economic development projects and resource competition contribute to witch hunts in some parts of the world?
In what ways can the cutting of social welfare programs, as mentioned in the Scientific American article in the context of Kenya and Nigeria, be linked to an increase in witchcraft accusations?
The English Heritage article discusses the misconception that the Catholic Church solely instigated witch trials. Which other religious denominations were also involved in persecuting individuals for witchcraft?
According to the English Heritage article, was the idea of a male witch uncommon during the period of persecutions? What does this suggest about the nature of these accusations?
How does the Scientific American article illustrate the ongoing struggle against modern witch hunts, providing specific examples of resistance and activism?
Answer Key for Short-Answer Quiz
Immediate triggers often include a neighborly dispute, a family rivalry, or a property disagreement. When something negative subsequently occurs, like a child falling ill or an accident happening, pre-existing suspicions against a woman are amplified, leading to accusations of witchcraft.
The transition to capitalism led to the privatization of previously common lands, disrupting traditional subsistence economies and creating a class of dispossessed people. This economic upheaval caused social conflicts between the wealthy and the poor, which sometimes manifested as accusations of witchcraft against vulnerable individuals.
In medieval Europe, women often had relative economic independence, participating in various trades and having access to common resources. With the expansion of capitalism, many rural women lost access to land and their traditional economic roles, making older, unproductive women without social support particularly susceptible to witchcraft accusations.
In England and its American colonies, those convicted of witchcraft were primarily hanged. In Scotland, witches were strangled to death before their bodies were burned.
The estimated number of people executed during the main era of witchcraft persecutions, from 1427 to 1782, is between 30,000 and 60,000.
Modern development projects like highways, hydropower plants, and mines can displace large populations and increase inequality. This social and economic disruption can lead to blame attribution and the scapegoating of marginalized groups through accusations of witchcraft, particularly in conflicts over land and resources.
When social welfare programs are cut, the state's presence in people's lives diminishes, leaving individuals to find their own explanations for hardship. This can lead to increased scapegoating of vulnerable populations, such as the disabled, children, the elderly, and women, with witchcraft accusations serving as a way to assign blame for misfortunes.
While the Roman Catholic Church was involved to some degree, the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican churches also persecuted witches. Eastern Orthodox churches, however, carried out almost no witch-hunting.
The idea of a male witch was not uncommon. Across Europe, around 10 to 15 percent of those executed for witchcraft were men. This indicates that while women were often the primary targets in some regions, men were also susceptible to such accusations.
The Scientific American article highlights resistance through legal challenges, the provision of pensions to the elderly for social protection, and grassroots movements led by women, particularly Indigenous women, to defend land and resources against dispossession in places like Brazil, Bolivia, Kenya, and India.
3. Essay Questions
Analyze the interconnectedness between social and economic transformations and the rise and decline of witch hunts in Europe and the American colonies, drawing specific examples from the provided texts.
Compare and contrast the explanations for witch hunts presented in the Scientific American and English Heritage articles, considering their perspectives on the primary drivers and the accuracy of popular beliefs.
Discuss the ways in which gender dynamics and patriarchal structures contributed to the targeting of women in historical witch hunts, and explore whether and how these dynamics manifest in contemporary accusations of witchcraft.
Evaluate the argument that modern witch hunts are a direct consequence of capitalist expansion and resource competition in the Global South, providing evidence from the Scientific American article to support or refute this claim.
Critically assess the role of belief systems and superstition in driving witch hunts, considering both the historical context and the persistence of such beliefs in some modern societies as discussed in the provided sources.
4. Glossary of Key Terms
Capitalism: An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and a market-based economy.
Commons: Land or resources traditionally held and used collectively by a community, rather than being privately owned.
Dispossession: The act of depriving someone of land, property, or other possessions.
Enclosure: The process of fencing off common lands and converting them into private property, particularly prevalent in early modern Europe.
Feudalism: A social and political system prevalent in medieval Europe, characterized by a hierarchy of lords and vassals, with peasants tied to the land.
Patriarchal Society: A social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, property ownership, and control of labor.
Scapegoating: The practice of unfairly blaming an individual or group for problems or misfortunes that are not of their making.
Sorcery: The use of magical powers, often for malevolent purposes; often used interchangeably with witchcraft in historical contexts.
Witchcraft: The practice of magic or sorcery, often believed to involve a pact with evil forces. Historically, accusations of witchcraft were used to target marginalized individuals.
Austerity Measures: Government policies aimed at reducing budget deficits through spending cuts and tax increases, often implemented in response to economic crises or as conditions for international loans.
5. Timeline of Main Events
13th Century onwards:
Europe: Landlords and wealthier peasants begin the process of enclosing communally held fields, forests, and meadows, intensifying in later centuries.
1427-1436:
Savoy (Western Alps): The earliest of the main era of witchcraft persecutions take place.
Late 15th Century:
Europe: Church leaders initiate witch hunts, partly to police social mores.
16th Century:
Europe: The conquest of the "New World" leads to a flood of silver into Europe, causing inflation and decreasing the purchasing power of wages, disproportionately affecting women.
Europe: The enclosure movement intensifies, displacing rural populations and leading to mass impoverishment.
Europe: Peasant riots erupt across Europe in response to wage collapse and land loss.
England: The first Witchcraft Act is passed under Henry VIII in 1542, making pact witchcraft and summoning spirits capital crimes.
Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula (1562): Spanish authorities torture approximately 4,500 people for worshipping idols, publicly flog them, and enslave survivors in mines.
South America: Witch hunts are spurred by the demand for silver and gold, helping to suppress rebellions against colonization and secure mine laborers.
New England Colonies: Elites write Bible-influenced legal codes that include witchcraft as a capital crime.
Late 16th Century (specifically 1580s-1630s):
Europe: The "Great Hunt" of witches peaks during a period of significant social and economic upheaval as a capitalist economy emerges.
Europe: Witchcraft trials increasingly move from ecclesiastical to secular courts.
Scotland: Authorities systematically incite panic against witches, instructing people on identification and sometimes providing lists of women to denounce.
1558-1603:
England: More accused witches are executed during the last decade of Queen Elizabeth I's reign than under her successor, James I.
1585:
England (Tyburn): Margaret Harkett, a 65-year-old woman, is hanged for alleged witchcraft, with accusations stemming from petty disputes and misfortunes of her neighbors.
1587:
Scotland: James VI begins his rule.
1590:
Scotland (North Berwick): James VI personally intervenes in the trial of the North Berwick witches, accused of attempting to kill him. Dr. Fian is executed as part of this trial.
1597:
Scotland: James VI publishes his treatise Daemonologie.
Early 1600s:
New England Colonies: The first official witch trial takes place in Connecticut in 1647, likely influenced by English executions.
1603-1625:
England: Reign of King James I. While initially involved in witch trials in Scotland, he later spends time exposing fraudulent cases of demonic possession in England.
1604:
England: James I's Witchcraft Act is passed, considered a reversion to the status quo of making certain witchcraft activities capital crimes.
Mid-17th Century:
England: Matthew Hopkins, the "Witchfinder General," operates, reportedly making a significant amount of money from witch-finding.
1692:
New England (Salem): Martha Carrier is one of the 19 people hanged for witchcraft during the Salem Witch Trials.
By 1725:
New England Colonies: Over 300 people have been accused of witchcraft, with nearly four-fifths being women.
1782:
Switzerland (Glarus): Anna Goldi is executed, marking the end of the main era of witchcraft persecutions in Europe.
Latter Half of the 18th Century:
Europe: Witch accusations and persecutions decline. By this time, approximately 50,000 people are estimated to have been executed for sorcery in historical records.
19th Century:
British India: Colonial authorities seize land from upper-caste people, who then blame Dalit women for the loss and initiate witch hunts against them.
1990s:
Global South: A new wave of enclosures occurs due to development projects, displacing millions.
Kenya (Gusii region): Witch-hunting explodes, attributed to the implementation of stringent conditions for an IMF loan in 1981, leading to cuts in public spending and economic hardship.
Nigeria (University of Jos region): Economic stresses from austerity policies lead to fear of witchcraft in some ethnic groups with no prior history of it. An increase in homelessness and witchcraft accusations against children is observed.
Zambia: Witchcraft allegations are "particularly rife" in areas designated for game management, tourism, and potential large landowners.
2003:
India: A woman is murdered in a witch hunt.
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Mongbwalu gold mines): Competing factions accuse women ethnically linked to the opposition of spying and then witchcraft, leading to the estimated execution of up to 70 people.
2004:
Silvia Federici publishes Caliban and the Witch, arguing that sustained periods of witch-hunting are linked to social and economic dislocation.
Wangari Maathai, founder of Kenya's Greenbelt Movement, wins the Nobel Peace Prize for her environmental efforts, including tree planting to combat land dispossession.
2018:
Uganda: A location where contemporary witch hunts occur.
2021:
Papua New Guinea: A location where contemporary witch hunts occur.
India (Odisha): A report finds that a significant fraction of witch hunts involve explicit land grabs.
Kenya (Kilifi): Witch hunts often stem from a desire to seize elderly men's land.
United Nations: Passes a resolution condemning witch-hunting and ritual attacks after lobbying efforts.
October 2022:
Nigeria (Cross River State): Iquo Edet Eyo, a 69-year-old woman, is murdered along with four others by young men who accuse her of witchcraft causing a motorcycle crash. Suspicions had allegedly been held against her for years, including by a neighbor with whom her family had a property dispute.
May 2023:
Connecticut (U.S.): A legislative effort to exonerate those accused of witchcraft receives unexpected pushback, with a state representative questioning the innocence of an executed woman.
Cast of Characters
Iquo Edet Eyo: A 69-year-old woman from Cross River State in Nigeria who was murdered in October 2022 after being accused of witchcraft related to a motorcycle crash. Her family believes a property dispute with a neighbor contributed to the long-held suspicions against her.
Martha Carrier: A woman in the New England colonies who became pregnant out of wedlock and acquired property after the death of male relatives. She was accused of witchcraft and hanged in Salem. Her case exemplifies how those who transgressed social norms or gained independence could be targets.
Margaret Harkett: A 65-year-old woman hanged in Tyburn, England, in 1585. The accusations against her were based on petty neighborly disputes and misfortunes that occurred after disagreements with her. Her case illustrates how ordinary conflicts could be interpreted as witchcraft.
Matthew Hopkins: England's most famous witch-hunter in the mid-17th century. He reportedly made a substantial amount of money through his activities, highlighting the potential for financial gain in witch-hunting.
"Captain" Dorothy Dawson: Led 37 women in an attack on laborers fencing in a village commons in Yorkshire, England, during peasant unrest, showcasing women's active participation in resistance against land enclosures.
Anna Goldi: The last person executed for witchcraft in the main era of persecutions, in the Swiss canton of Glarus in 1782. Her execution marks a symbolic end to this period in Europe.
Silvia Federici: A scholar and author of Caliban and the Witch (2004) and other works who argues that historical witch hunts were sustained by social and economic dislocations, particularly the rise of capitalism and the dispossession of common lands. She studies both historical and contemporary witch hunts.
Alice Markham-Cantor: A scholar who studies witch hunts, both historical and contemporary, alongside Silvia Federici.
E. B. Fryde: A historian who documented the extensive destruction of rural communities in England due to enclosure in the 1500s.
Christina Larner: A historian who wrote about the systematic incitement of panic against witches by authorities in Scotland.
Keith Thomas: A historian who documented the accusations against Margaret Harkett, illustrating the nature of witchcraft accusations in England.
Yves-Marie Bercé: A historian who studied food riots in 17th-century France, noting instances where all the protesters were women.
King James I (James VI of Scotland): Initially involved in witch trials in Scotland, including the North Berwick case, and author of Daemonologie. As King of England, he later became involved in exposing fraudulent cases of demonic possession. His views and involvement in witch beliefs evolved over time.
Professor Diane Purkiss: Professor of English Literature at Keble College, University of Oxford, who debunks common myths and misconceptions about witchcraft in the provided English Heritage document.
Dr. Fian: A healer executed as part of the North Berwick witch trials in Scotland in 1590, showing that men were also accused of witchcraft.
Tanvi Yadav: A scholar from the Central University of Rajasthan who writes about the connection between colonial land seizures in 19th-century British India and witch-hunting against Dalit women.
Justus Ogembo: An anthropologist who analyzed the surge in witch-hunting in the Gusii region of Kenya in the 1990s, linking it to the economic impacts of IMF loan conditions.
Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani: A professor of religious studies at the University of Jos in Nigeria who connects economic stresses from austerity policies to the emergence of witchcraft fears.
Leo Igwe: Founder of Advocacy for Alleged Witches (AfAW) in Nigeria, which assists victims of witch hunts. He observes the link between cuts in social welfare programs and increased accusations.
Hugo Hinfelaar: A historian and missionary who notes the prevalence of witchcraft allegations in Zambia in the 1990s in areas targeted for economic development and land acquisition.
Miranda Forsyth: A researcher who studies witch hunts and notes how conflict over scarce resources can lead to accusations.
Mzee Samuel Kazungu: Chair of a group of men from Giriama subtribes in Kenya who address land disputes. He highlights how inheritance disputes can lead to accusations of witchcraft against elderly landowners.
Berrie Holtzhausen: Founder of Alzheimer's Namibia, who notes how fear of witchcraft accusations can affect wealthy individuals visiting rural areas and how professional witch finders can exploit the situation for financial gain.
Doug Dubitsky: A State Representative in Connecticut who questioned the innocence of a woman executed for witchcraft during a recent effort to exonerate those accused.
Wangari Maathai: Founder of Kenya's Greenbelt Movement, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 for her environmental conservation efforts, which can be seen as a response to land dispossession that contributes to social tensions and witch hunts.
6. FAQ
1. What are the common underlying factors that contribute to the occurrence of witch hunts throughout history and in modern times? Witch hunts are complex phenomena with multiple contributing roots, but a consistently significant factor across different times and cultures is social and economic dislocation. This often manifests as the transition from subsistence economies to monetary and capitalistic systems, leading to the privatization of communal lands, increased poverty, and heightened social tensions between emerging classes. While beliefs in sorcery, patriarchal structures, lack of healthcare, and ineffective justice systems play a role, periods of significant economic upheaval and the resulting breakdown of traditional social structures appear to be crucial in creating an environment conducive to widespread accusations and persecution.
2. Contrary to popular belief, how were accused witches typically executed in English-speaking countries, and what was the approximate number of executions during the main era of witchcraft persecutions? In England and its American colonies, accused witches were typically hanged, not burned at the stake, as witchcraft was considered a felony. While burning of bodies did occur in Scotland, it was usually after the accused had been strangled. The widespread myth of millions of deaths is also inaccurate. Current estimates suggest that approximately 30,000 to 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during the main period of persecutions, spanning from the 15th to the 18th centuries, across Europe and its colonies.
3. What role did economic changes, particularly the rise of capitalism and land enclosure, play in the European witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries? The emergence and intensification of capitalism in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries significantly contributed to the Great Hunt of witches. The privatization of previously communal lands (enclosure) led to the displacement and impoverishment of many rural people, disrupting traditional community structures and creating conflict between the wealthy and the dispossessed. Older women, who often lost their traditional economic roles and access to land, became particularly vulnerable targets, lacking social support and being viewed as unproductive. The witch hunts served, in part, as a way to eliminate resistance to this dispossession and reinforce a new patriarchal order.
4. Were the witch hunts primarily instigated by the Catholic Church and were the majority of those accused women? The instigation of witch hunts was not solely the work of the Catholic Church. While the Catholic Church did initiate early witch hunts, the persecution of witches also occurred within Protestant states, including England, Scotland, Scandinavia, and Geneva, with all major Western Christian denominations participating to some degree. The Spanish Inquisition, for example, executed very few individuals for witchcraft. While women were the majority of those accused in England, in some other European countries, such as certain Scandinavian nations, men were accused in slightly larger numbers. The idea of a male witch was certainly present, and across Europe, a notable percentage of those executed were men.
5. How do modern witch hunts in the Global South relate to contemporary economic and social changes? Many modern witch hunts in the Global South are linked to the expansion and intensification of capitalism, similar to historical European witch hunts. Government and corporate appropriation of land for development projects displaces large populations, increases inequality, fragments communities, and exacerbates social, gender, and intergenerational conflicts. When these economic changes lead to increased hardship, lack of social welfare, and inaccessible justice systems, vulnerable individuals, such as the elderly, children, and marginalized women, are often scapegoated and accused of witchcraft as a way to explain misfortune and assign blame.
6. What were some of the specific motivations behind accusations of witchcraft, both historically and in the present day, beyond simple superstition? Beyond general beliefs in magic, accusations of witchcraft have often been driven by specific social and economic tensions. Historically, these included property disputes, resentment, envy, and the desire to seize the assets of the accused. In modern times, motivations include land grabs, settling scores related to economic competition (such as in mining regions), and the scapegoating of vulnerable populations during times of economic hardship or social upheaval. Accusations can also arise from generational conflicts over resources and the actions of professional witch finders who may profit financially from their activities.
7. Were accused witches typically isolated individuals with no support, and what role did community dynamics play in the witch hunts? While accused witches were often marginalized, community dynamics played a significant role in the unfolding of witch hunts. Initial complaints might start as whispers from neighbors or rivals, but wider acceptance and action often followed a triggering event like illness or an accident. Fear and suspicion could spread through communities, leading more people to echo accusations. Attempts to defend the accused, even by close friends ("gossips"), could put the defender at risk. In some instances, authorities actively incited panic and provided lists of potential "witches" to denounce, highlighting the influence of social and political forces in driving the hunts.
8. What are some of the ways in which people and organizations are currently fighting back against modern witch hunts and seeking justice for past victims? Various efforts are underway to combat modern witch hunts. These include advocacy groups that assist victims, lobbying for legal reforms and UN resolutions condemning such violence, and providing social protection like pensions to reduce vulnerability. Crucially, movements that resist land dispossession and wealth concentration, empower marginalized communities, and promote social justice are seen as potent responses to the underlying economic factors that fuel these persecutions. Additionally, there are ongoing efforts to exonerate historical victims of witch hunts and raise awareness about the injustices they faced.
7. Table of Contents
Introduction (00:00)
Overview of the podcast's focus on witch hunts throughout history and today.
Setting the Sources (00:51)
Introduction to the Scientific American and English Heritage articles that inform the discussion.
Economic and Social Factors (02:14)
Exploration of how economic changes in medieval Europe contributed to witch hunting.
Land Enclosure and Capitalism (03:41)
Discussion of how land privatization created vulnerable populations and coincided with increased witch hunts.
State Involvement (05:10)
How governments became involved in witch hunting and profited from accusations.
Colonial Witch Hunts (08:22)
Examples of witch hunts in South America, North America, and British India during colonization.
Modern-Day Witch Hunts (10:02)
Analysis of contemporary witch hunting in places like Kenya, Nigeria, and Congo, and their economic causes.
Fighting Back (12:22)
Organizations and movements working against modern witch hunts.
Debunking Historical Myths (12:56)
Examination of misconceptions about historical witch hunts.
Execution Methods (13:13)
Clarification about burning at the stake versus hanging.
Death Toll (13:44)
Correction of the numbers of people executed for witchcraft.
Conviction Rates (14:14)
Discussion of the percentage of accused actually convicted.
Number of Trials (14:58)
Information about how many witch trials actually occurred in England.
Religious Involvement (15:31)
Analysis of which religious denominations participated in witch hunting.
Royal Influence (16:14)
King James I's complicated relationship with witch hunting.
Gender Dynamics (17:05)
Clarification about the gender of those accused and those doing the accusing.
The "Wise Woman" Myth (17:57)
Debunking the idea of witches as persecuted goddess-worshipping herbalists.
Conclusion (18:37)
Summary and invitation for listeners to recognize similar patterns today.
Outro (19:36)
The podcast's four recurring narratives and invitation to explore more content.
8. Index
AIDS, 10:55 American colonies, 13:27 Anglicans, 15:49 Balalu gold mines, 11:25 Brewing, 02:37 British India, 09:38 Calvinists, 15:49 Capitalism, 04:41, 08:44 Colonial contexts, 08:22 Common land, 03:54 Congo, Democratic Republic of, 11:25 Eastern Orthodox churches, 15:53 Economic changes, 02:14, 02:41 Economic independence, 02:36 Elizabeth I, Queen, 16:39 Enclosure, 03:54 England, 13:27, 14:24, 14:58, 15:35, 16:35, 17:36 English Heritage, 01:04, 01:24 European feudal system, 02:35 Executions, 07:40, 13:26, 13:44, 16:39 Federici, Sylvia, 02:14 Gender dynamics, 17:05 Goddess worship, 18:09 Gold and silver, 03:05, 08:26 Harkett, Margaret, 06:23 Henry VIII, 16:41 Hopkins, Matthew, 06:58 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 10:50 Igwe, Leo, 10:57 Inquisition, Spanish, 15:31, 16:05 James I, King, 16:14, 16:53 Kenya, 10:49, 11:29 Land dispossession, 07:44, 09:38, 11:25, 12:29 Legal challenges, 12:26 Lutherans, 15:49 Malawi, 11:57 Mexico, 08:30 Midwives, 09:04, 18:12, 18:16 Namibia, 11:36, 11:57 New England, 09:10 Nigeria, 10:56, 11:19 North America, 09:04 Patriarchal society, 07:10 Persecutions, 01:37, 15:48 Professional witch finders, 11:53 Protestant states, 16:07 Puritans, 09:04 Reproductive capabilities, 07:22 Scandinavia, 16:08, 17:29 Scientific American, 01:03, 01:23, 02:14, 09:35, 12:56 Scotland, 05:47, 13:30, 16:08 Social safety net, 12:27 South America, 08:23 Witch finders, 05:50, 11:53 Witch hunting, 02:23, 07:32, 10:34, 11:53, 12:24, 16:39, 17:09, 17:13 Witch marks, 18:17 Witch trials, 09:05, 14:58, 15:31 Women's bodies, 07:22 Yucatan Peninsula, 08:30
9. Poll
10. Post-Episode Fact Check
The podcast episode generally presents factual information about witch hunts, but I've identified some areas to verify:
Accurate information:
The discussion of economic and social factors in witch hunts aligns with academic research.
The historical timeline regarding witch trials in Europe is generally accurate.
The geographical distribution of witch hunts mentioned matches historical records.
The contrast between English legal approaches and continental Europe is supported by historical evidence.
Numbers that could be verified:
The claim of about 50,000 executions (mentioned at 07:40) falls within the 30,000-60,000 range cited by the English Heritage source.
The statement that only 25% of English witch trial defendants were executed appears to be consistent with historical records.
The claim that about 2,000 people were tried for witchcraft in England aligns with scholarly estimates.
The statement that 10-15% of executed "witches" were men is consistent with broader European historical research.
Potentially questionable claims:
The direct linking of capitalism's rise to witch hunts (04:41) is a specific interpretation championed by Federici but is not universally accepted by all historians.
The podcast presents modern witch hunts in Africa as directly analogous to historical European witch hunts, which may oversimplify complex cultural differences.
The claim that the IMF's policies directly led to witch hunts in Kenya needs more evidence to establish causation rather than correlation.
Overall, the podcast presents a generally factual view of historical witch hunts while incorporating some specific interpretations about their economic and social causes. The debunking of myths about witch hunts appears to be well-supported by historical research, but some of the economic interpretations represent particular scholarly perspectives rather than universal consensus.
11. Image (3000 x 3000 pixels)
