Lion's Teeth Marks in British Graves: The Roman Empire's Brutal Entertainment Industry
The discovery brings home a reality: Lions were captured in Africa, transported thousands of miles under horrific conditions, only to face terrified humans in arenas for the entertainment of crowds.
With every article and podcast episode, we provide comprehensive study materials: References, Executive Summary, Briefing Document, Quiz, Essay Questions, Glossary, Timeline, Cast, FAQ, Table of Contents, Index, Polls, 3k Image, and Fact Check.
Evidence hidden in bones tells a bloody story of Roman Britain that changes everything we thought we knew.
When we think of Roman gladiator combat, our minds normally drift to the Colosseum in Rome, or perhaps to the sun-baked arenas of North Africa and the Mediterranean. Few of us picture lions stalking the misty shores of Britain.
But that's exactly what archaeologists have discovered: concrete evidence of lions in York.
This isn't just any discovery. It's a paradigm shift in our understanding of Roman Britain and the true reach of imperial power and its brutal entertainment industry.
The Cemetery
The Driffield Terrace Cemetery in York (Roman Eburacum) has been puzzling archaeologists for years. Located along a main road outside the Roman city, it's not your typical burial ground:
70% of the burials were decapitations (compared to the usual 5-6%)
Most decapitations were back-to-front, suggesting execution
The population heavily skewed toward men aged 18-45
Almost no women or children
One individual buried with iron rings still around his ankles
Initially, historians proposed this might be a mass execution site. But the evidence pointed to something else entirely: a burial ground for gladiators, specifically a "familia gladiatoria" - a traveling gladiator troop, possibly attached to the 6th Legion Victrix stationed in York.
The skeletons tell a story of violence. About 23% showed evidence of healed injuries - skull fractures, broken teeth, busted knuckles, and fractured vertebrae. These weren't everyday accidents but signs of repeated violent encounters. Many head injuries appeared on the left side - exactly what you'd expect if someone right-handed was facing off against you.
But the most shocking evidence came from Skeleton 60T19.
The Lion's Bite
This was a male, around 26-35 years old, standing about 5'8", whose isotopic signature suggested he came from a warmer climate than Britain. Like others in the cemetery, he was decapitated.
What made him unique were the distinct marks on both sides of his pelvis - small depressions and crushed areas with tiny bone fragments still embedded in the lesions. This suggested the damage occurred when soft tissue was still present.
Using advanced 3D structured light scanning, researchers created detailed digital models of these marks and compared them with documented bite patterns from various animals. The verdict? These were almost certainly the bite marks of a lion, occurring around the time of death.
Let that sink in. A lion. In York.
The Implications Are Staggering
This single set of bite marks fundamentally alters our understanding of Roman Britain in several ways:
It validates the visual evidence. For years, archaeologists have found mosaics, pottery, and artifacts depicting exotic animal combat in Britain. The Rudston Venus Mosaic shows a lion and other animals alongside armed figures. A copper alloy key handle from Leicester depicts a lion attacking a human. Without physical proof of these animals in Britain, such depictions could be dismissed as artistic fantasy or imported designs. Not anymore.
It confirms the power of the Roman entertainment complex. The logistics of transporting a lion from Africa to Britain are mind-boggling. It would require specialized cages, ships, overland routes, and trained handlers. This wasn't just entertainment—it was an immense display of imperial power reaching into the furthest provinces.
It reveals York's importance. York wasn't just any Roman outpost; it was a major center where emperors stayed and provincial governors ruled. Septimius Severus himself died there. This discovery confirms York's status as a place worthy of the most spectacular Roman entertainments.
It highlights North African connections. During the Severan dynasty (which had North African origins), York showed clear influences from that region. Local potters were copying African styles, and trade links were strong. These connections provide a plausible route for how African animals might have ended up in northern Britain.
The Dark Reality of Roman Entertainment
While we've long understood Roman entertainment to be bloody, this discovery brings home the reality of what that actually meant in practical terms.
Real lions were captured in Africa, transported thousands of miles in what must have been horrific conditions, only to face terrified humans in provincial arenas for the entertainment of crowds. Those humans were likely condemned criminals, prisoners of war, or professional fighters with little choice in their profession.
The environmental impact alone is staggering. How many lions, leopards, and other exotic animals were taken from their habitats to satisfy this blood sport? How many didn't survive the journey? Roman spectacle was an ecological disaster in its own right.
And for what? So local elites could demonstrate their wealth and connections. So governors could curry favor with the populace. So emperors could display their power. Entertainment as political currency, paid for in blood.
What We're Still Missing
This discovery should make us wonder: what other evidence remains hidden in plain sight?
For decades, archaeologists found animal bones at British amphitheater sites but nothing exotic - just the remains of domestic animals and local game. No one thought to look for the marks those animals might have left on human remains. What other connections are we missing because we're not asking the right questions?
The bite marks on 60T19's pelvis weren't obvious. They required sophisticated 3D scanning technology to analyze properly. As our technological capabilities increase, how many more secrets will ordinary-looking archaeological remains yield?
A Warning from History
Today, we like to think we're more civilized than our Roman ancestors. We condemn blood sports and value animal life. But are we really so different?
We still transport exotic animals around the world for our entertainment. We still destroy habitats and drive species to extinction. We still create spectacular events to demonstrate wealth, power, and status.
The methods may be less bloody, but the underlying psychology - the desire to dominate, to show power through control of nature - remains remarkably similar.
This discovery in York doesn't just teach us about Roman Britain. It holds up a mirror to our own society and asks uncomfortable questions about how much has really changed in two thousand years.
The next time you marvel at an ancient Roman spectacle depicted in film or television, remember Skeleton 60T19 and the real lion that bit into his hip. Remember that these weren't just stories or myths - they were brutal realities endured by real people and animals at the far edges of empire.
History isn't always found in grand monuments or written records. Sometimes, it's written in tooth marks on bone, waiting centuries to tell its tale.
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References: Unique osteological evidence for human-animal gladiatorial combat in Roman Britain
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STUDY MATERIALS
1. Briefing Document
Executive Summary:
This briefing document reviews a recent study that presents unique osteological evidence for human-animal gladiatorial combat in Roman Britain. The analysis of bite marks on a skeleton (6DT19) excavated from a putatively gladiatorial burial ground in York (Roman Eboracum) strongly suggests peri-mortem scavenging by a large felid, most likely a lion. This finding provides the first direct physical evidence for such spectacles in Roman Britain and has significant implications for understanding spectacle culture, the movement of exotic animals, and the connections of Roman Britain within the wider empire. The study utilizes advanced 3D scanning technology and comparative analysis with modern animal bite marks to support its conclusions.
Main Themes and Important Ideas/Facts:
Limited Direct Evidence for Gladiatorial Combat: While archaeological evidence like amphitheatres and visual representations exists across the Roman Empire, direct and unequivocal skeletal evidence of gladiatorial combat is surprisingly limited. The gladiator cemetery at Ephesus and human remains from Lower Walbrook in London offer some examples of trauma consistent with interpersonal combat.
"The most direct and unequivocal evidence for gladiatorial combat is trauma on the skeletons of those believed to have been gladiators. Such evidence is, however, surprisingly limited."
Evidence for "Beast Hunts" (Venationes) is Primarily Textual and Visual: Roman amphitheatres also staged "beast hunts" (venationes) involving armed performers against animals, and "damnatio ad bestias," the execution of individuals by animals. Evidence for these spectacles outside Rome is mainly in the form of inscriptions, mosaics, and sculpture.
"In addition to person-to-person combat, Roman amphitheatres also staged ‘beast hunts’ (venationes), which pitched people against animals (Fig 1), a spectacle lasting from the Republican period until late antiquity. Such spectacles at Rome are extensively documented in textual evidence; beyond the metropolis, inscriptions, mosaics and monumental stone sculpture commemorate similar events..."
The Driffield Terrace Cemetery in York as a Potential Gladiator Burial Ground: The Driffield Terrace site in York exhibits several unusual features, including a high proportion of decapitation burials (often non-standard execution style), a strong male bias in the demographics, a high prevalence of healed ante-mortem trauma consistent with interpersonal violence (even higher than the Ephesus gladiator cemetery), and diverse isotopic profiles suggesting origins across the Roman Empire.
"Overall, the osteological evidence provides us with a picture of young or middle aged men, originating from across the Roman Empire, engaging in repetitive and sustained acts of violence. The skeletal evidence for trauma, together with the exceptional demography and decapitations, are consistent with death as a consequence of participation in a combat arena [24]."
Unique Bite Marks on Skeleton 6DT19: Individual 6DT19, dated to the third century AD, found in a multiple burial at Driffield Terrace, displayed a series of unusual peri-mortem depressions on the pelvis. Initial analysis suggested carnivore bite marks.
"Additional peri-mortem trauma was present in the form of a series of small depressions on both sides of the pelvis, located close to the iliac crest and spines [16]."
Advanced 3D Scanning for Bite Mark Analysis: The study utilized non-contact structured light scanning to create detailed 3D models of the pelvic lesions, allowing for precise measurements and comparison with modern faunal comparators.
"With this in mind, Skeleton 6DT19 was re-examined for signs of injury and subsequently 3D documented using a non-contact structured light scanner. This allowed for a more detailed analysis of the shape and positioning of injuries as well as three-dimensional comparisons with the modern faunal comparators (see below)."
Comparative Analysis Points to a Large Felid, Likely a Lion: Comparison of the bite marks on 6DT19 with experimental data on scavenging by various large carnivores (lions, tigers, leopards, cheetahs, dogs, bears, boars) strongly suggests the marks were made by a large felid, consistent with the puncture wounds created by their canines. The location on the pelvis suggests scavenging rather than a primary attack.
"It is proposed, based on the evidence from the archaeological, medical and forensic evidence, that the bite marks on 6DT19 derive from a large felid, such as a lion. The shape is entirely consistent with documented cases of large cat bite marks (such as those presented in [35,46]). The location solely on the pelvis suggests that they were not part of an attack per se, but rather the result of scavenging at around the time of death."
Ruling Out Alternative Explanations: The study considered and dismissed other possible causes for the lesions, including peri-mortem weapon injuries (trident, arrow) and taphonomic damage, as the characteristics of the marks were not consistent with these alternatives.
"Other possible explanations for the lesions exhibited by 6DT19 include peri-mortem penetrating weapon injuries or taphonomic damage but these are not convincing."
Implications for Understanding Spectacle Culture in Roman Britain: This discovery provides the first direct physical evidence for human-animal spectacles involving large exotic animals in Roman Britain. While visual and textual evidence hinted at such events, this osteological finding adds significant weight and specificity to our understanding of spectacle culture in the province, particularly in York.
"The most likely context for the trauma incurred by 6DT19 lies within Roman spectacle culture, the staging of often violent performances involving animals as combatants, as victims and as agents of execution..."
Logistical Implications of Transporting Exotic Animals: The likely presence of a lion in York in the third century AD has significant implications for understanding the logistical networks required to transport "ferae africanae" (African wild beasts like lions and leopards) to the northernmost parts of the Roman Empire. This suggests the existence of infrastructure, animal handlers, and transportation methods similar to those documented in the Mediterranean.
"Whatever the specific context, as witness to the long-distance movement northwards from the Mediterranean of ferae africanae (a Roman term for lions and leopards shown in the arena), the bite-mark evidence has significant logistical implications. The practicalities of wild animal movement, boxes and cages, ships and wagons, draught animals and foodstuffs on the hoof, animal keepers and trainers, all imply the existence in northern Europe, however occasional or intermittent, of the cavalcades documented in the Mediterranean for the transport of animals to Rome."
Connecting Local Evidence to Wider Imperial Practices: The find strengthens the interpretation of visual evidence from Britain, such as the Rudston mosaic depicting lions and other animals, as potential reflections of real local spectacles. It also connects Britain to the broader imperial phenomenon of animal spectacles, influenced by the availability of resources, local preferences, and the role of spectacle in urban social dynamics.
"Just as the bite mark evidence allows more confident claiming of animal spectacle images from Britain such as the Rudston mosaic or Leicester key handle as representations of real events, so too may it permit the same for the more abundant and impressive visual evidence from neighbouring provinces."
Potential Roles of Emperors, Governors, and Local Elites: The study suggests that emperors, governors, or local magistrates could have been responsible for staging such spectacles in York, potentially as a display of power, generosity, or loyalty.
"In a city such as York, the emperor himself is not to be excluded as a giver of games, either directly or through the provincial governor on his behalf, counting on the lion’s presence, whether in a show or exemplary execution, to imprint a memory of authority as well as munificence."
Conclusion:
The osteological evidence from skeleton 6DT19 at Driffield Terrace in York provides compelling and unique direct evidence for the presence of large felids, likely lions, in Roman Britain and their involvement in spectacle culture, either through performance or execution. This discovery significantly enhances our understanding of the nature and scale of animal spectacles in the northern provinces of the Roman Empire and highlights the interconnectedness of even distant regions within the imperial network for the movement of exotic animals. The multidisciplinary approach employed in this study underscores the value of osteological analysis and modern forensic techniques in illuminating aspects of life and death in the Roman past.
2. Quiz & Answer Key
I. Key Concepts and Themes
Gladiatorial Combat: Understand the different types of gladiatorial contests, including man-on-man combat and venationes (beast hunts).
Venationes and Damnatio ad Bestias: Differentiate between staged animal hunts with trained performers and the use of animals for executions.
Archaeological Evidence for Gladiatorial Combat: Recognize the various forms of evidence, such as amphitheatres, visual representations, training complexes, and skeletal remains.
Osteological Evidence of Trauma: Understand how skeletal injuries, both healed and peri-mortem, can indicate participation in violent activities like gladiatorial combat.
The Driffield Terrace Cemetery: Know the key characteristics of this burial site in York, including the high proportion of decapitation burials, demographic bias, and evidence of healed trauma.
Individual 6DT19: Focus on the specific skeletal remains of this individual and the unusual bite marks found on the pelvis.
Bite Mark Analysis: Understand the methods used to analyze bite marks on bone and how these can be compared to known animal bite patterns.
Large Felids (Lions, Leopards, Tigers): Recognize their characteristic attack and scavenging patterns and the types of bone trauma they can inflict.
Roman Spectacle Culture in Britain: Understand the limited evidence for amphitheatre performances in Britain and the role of visual representations and other artifacts.
Logistics of Animal Transportation: Consider the implications of transporting large, exotic animals like lions to Roman Britain.
Municipal Euergetism: Understand how wealthy individuals or civic bodies sponsored public spectacles.
Roman Presence in York (Eboracum): Recognize its significance as a legionary fortress and later a colony and provincial capital.
Interpreting Limited Evidence: Understand the challenges of reconstructing Roman spectacle culture in Britain based on fragmented archaeological and textual sources.
II. Review Questions (Self-Assessment)
What are the primary forms of archaeological evidence for gladiatorial combat across the Roman Empire?
How does the skeletal trauma found at the gladiator cemetery in Ephesus compare to the trauma observed in the individuals from Driffield Terrace?
Explain the difference between venationes and damnatio ad bestias. What kind of evidence supports the existence of both in the Roman world?
What are the unusual characteristics of the Driffield Terrace cemetery that suggest a connection to a potentially marginalized or specific population?
Describe the location and nature of the lesions found on the pelvis of individual 6DT19.
What methods were used to analyze the bite marks on 6DT19, and why were these methods considered more informative than traditional photography?
Based on the comparative bite mark analysis, what type of animal is the most likely source of the lesions on 6DT19, and why were other animals like dogs, bears, and boars ruled out?
What are the limitations of relying solely on literary evidence and imported artifacts when trying to understand Roman spectacle culture in Britain?
How does the identification of a lion bite mark on a skeleton from York contribute to our understanding of animal transportation and the scale of spectacle in Roman Britain?
What are some potential interpretations of the presence of a lion in a spectacle event in Roman York during the third century AD?
III. Quiz (Short Answer)
What is the most direct form of archaeological evidence for gladiatorial combat, and why is it surprisingly limited?
Beyond textual evidence, what other forms of archaeological finds suggest the presence and nature of "beast hunts" (venationes) in the Roman Empire?
Describe two unusual features of the Driffield Terrace cemetery in York that deviate from typical Roman burial practices in Britain.
What key ante-mortem injuries were observed on the skeletons from Driffield Terrace that suggest repeated violent encounters?
Explain the primary method used in the study to analyze the lesions on the pelvis of individual 6DT19 and what advantages it offers over traditional methods.
Based on the analysis, what specific type of large animal is the most likely source of the bite marks on 6DT19, and what characteristics of the lesions support this conclusion?
What are some of the challenges in using visual representations on artifacts to definitively understand spectacle culture in Roman Britain?
How does the discovery of a likely lion bite in York contribute to our understanding of the movement of exotic animals within the Roman Empire?
Besides soldiers, what other categories of individuals might have been involved in or victims of animal spectacles in Roman Britain?
How does the multidisciplinary approach used in this study enhance our understanding of the individual's death and the broader context of Roman spectacle culture in Britain?
IV. Quiz Answer Key
The most direct form of archaeological evidence is trauma on the skeletons of individuals believed to be gladiators. This evidence is surprisingly limited due to factors such as cremation practices, poor preservation, and the difficulty in definitively linking skeletal remains to gladiatorial activity.
Beyond textual evidence, inscriptions, mosaics, and monumental stone sculptures commemorate venationes and the generosity of patrons who funded them. Mass-produced ceramics also frequently depict these spectacles, indicating their familiarity to Roman audiences.
Two unusual features of the Driffield Terrace cemetery are the very high proportion of decapitation burials (approximately 70%) and the strong male bias in the adult burials, which is exceptional even for military sites.
The skeletons from Driffield Terrace exhibit a high prevalence of healed or healing ante-mortem trauma, including cranio-facial fractures, fractured teeth, fractured metacarpals, and vertebrae, which are consistent with repeated interpersonal violence.
The primary method used was 3D structured light surface scanning, which allowed for a detailed analysis of the shape, positioning, depth, and volume of the lesions, enabling more accurate comparisons with modern faunal bite marks than 2D photography.
A large felid, such as a lion, is the most likely source. The shape, size, depth, and clustering of the puncture-like lesions on the pelvis are consistent with documented cases of large cat bite marks and less consistent with other carnivores.
Many visual representations on artifacts are imported or depict generic arena scenes, making it difficult to determine if they directly reflect local spectacle culture in Britain. Additionally, the influence of external artistic styles can complicate their use as direct witnesses.
The finding suggests that exotic animals like lions were indeed transported to the northern peripheries of the Roman Empire, implying a logistical network for the movement of "ferae africanae" and supporting interpretations of local animal spectacles.
Besides soldiers, captives from warfare, criminals, and other perceived deviants (including Christians) were sometimes forced to participate in animal spectacles as victims of damnatio ad bestias. Trained performers (venatores or bestiarii) also participated.
The multidisciplinary approach, combining osteological analysis, historical and epigraphic data, zoological analysis of bite marks, and modern forensic techniques, provides a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the individual's death within the broader context of Roman spectacle culture.
3. Essay Questions
Analyze the osteological evidence from the Driffield Terrace cemetery in York. To what extent does this evidence support the interpretation that the individuals buried there were gladiators? Consider both the healed and peri-mortem trauma, as well as the demographic and burial characteristics of the site.
Discuss the significance of the bite marks found on the pelvis of individual 6DT19. How does the analysis of these lesions contribute to our understanding of Roman spectacle culture, particularly the presence and role of exotic animals in Britain?
Evaluate the limitations of the archaeological and textual evidence for Roman spectacle culture in Britain. How does the osteological evidence presented in this study potentially address some of these limitations and offer new insights?
Explore the logistical implications of transporting large, exotic animals like lions to Roman Britain for spectacles. What does this suggest about the connections and resources available in Roman provinces like Britain during the imperial period?
Considering the evidence from this study and other sources, what role might public spectacles, including gladiatorial combat and venationes, have played in Roman society in Britain? Discuss the potential social, political, and cultural significance of these events.
4. Glossary of Key Terms
Antemortem Trauma: Injuries that occurred before death and show signs of healing.
Peri-mortem Trauma: Injuries that occurred at or around the time of death and show no signs of healing.
Venationes: "Beast hunts" in Roman amphitheatres, involving armed performers (venatores or bestiarii) against animals.
Damnatio ad Bestias: A form of Roman capital punishment where condemned individuals were exposed to wild animals.
Osteological Evidence: Evidence derived from the study of bones and skeletal remains.
Cranial Trauma: Injuries to the skull.
Inhumation: Burial of a whole body.
Cremation: The practice of burning a body to ashes.
Decapitation: The removal of the head.
Supine Burial: Burial with the body lying on its back.
Grave Goods: Objects buried with a body.
Palaeopathological Analysis: The study of diseases and injuries in ancient skeletal remains.
Isotopic Analysis: The study of stable isotopes in skeletal remains to infer diet and geographic origin.
Putative: Generally considered or reputed to be.
Lesions: Injuries or abnormalities in tissue.
Iliac Crest/Spine: Prominent bony ridges on the ilium (hip bone).
Taphonomic Damage: Modifications to bone after death resulting from natural processes or animal activity.
Structured Light Scanning: A non-contact 3D scanning technique used to capture the surface geometry of an object.
Faunal Comparators: Modern animal remains used for comparison in bite mark analysis.
Felid: Belonging to the cat family (Felidae), such as lions, tigers, and leopards.
Canine: Belonging to the dog family (Canidae), such as dogs and wolves.
Tusks: Elongated, continuously growing front teeth of some mammals, like boars.
Amphitheatre: A large, circular or oval open-air venue with tiered seating, used for public spectacles.
Carceres: The starting gates for chariot races in a circus or holding pens for animals in an amphitheatre.
Barbotine Ware: A type of Roman pottery decorated with raised slip.
Euergetism: The practice of wealthy individuals in the ancient world performing public services and benefactions, often including the provision of spectacles.
Ferae Africanae: A Roman term for large African wild animals, especially lions and leopards, used in spectacles.
Sodalitates: Associations or corporations, such as those of animal hunters (e.g., Telegeni).
Voluptas: Latin for pleasure or luxury.
Munificence: Generosity in bestowing gifts or favors.
Centripetal: Moving or directed toward a center.
Peripheries: The outer edges or regions of an area.
5. Timeline of Main Events
Republican Period - Late Antiquity:
Venationes (Beast Hunts): The spectacle of pitting people against animals (lions, tigers, leopards, bears, elephants, wild boar, stags, bulls) was staged in Roman amphitheatres, lasting from the Republican period until late antiquity.
Damnatio ad Bestias: Animals were used as agents of spectacular mutilation and execution of criminals, captives, and other perceived deviants, including Christians. Mythical narratives were sometimes re-enacted as executions.
Early 1st Century AD - Late 4th Century AD:
Burial at Driffield Terrace, York (Roman Eboracum): A burial ground located along a major routeway leading from York was used for inhumations and cremations. The burials spanned from the first or early second centuries AD to the late fourth century AD.
Sometime before 120 AD:
The Roman 9th legion, initially stationed at Eboracum, was replaced by the 6th legion. The 6th legion remained garrisoned there until the end of the Roman period in the early fifth century.
Around the 2nd-3rd Century AD:
Evidence of Venationes in Roman Britain: Diverse encounters between armed fighters and animals, staged hunts, and acrobatics involving animals were likely performed in British arenas, as suggested by images on Nene Valley and Colchester colour-coated vessels.
Around the Mid-Late 3rd Century AD:
Burial of Individual 6DT19: Individual 6DT19, a male aged 26-35, was buried in a multiple burial within a possible earlier burial mound at Driffield Terrace. Stratigraphic evidence suggests this burial occurred in the middle to later part of the third century AD. This individual's pelvis shows peri-mortem bite marks consistent with a large felid, likely a lion.
AD 208-211:
Presence of Septimius Severus and his sons in Eboracum: The emperor Septimius Severus, who originated from Leptis Magna in North Africa, and his sons were present in York. This highlights connections between York and North Africa, potentially facilitating the presence of exotic animals.
Late 3rd Century AD:
Rudston Mosaic: A mosaic from a villa at Rudston in East Yorkshire, dating to the late third century AD, depicts Venus surrounded by armed figures and animals (lion, bull, leopard, and stag). Two of the animals are captioned with possible stage names, suggesting a venatio.
AD 167/8 (Carnuntum, near Vienna - Mentioned for Context):
An incident involving an abortive lion sacrifice occurred. Two lions, intended for a sacrifice during the Marcomannic wars, escaped into the Danube but died shortly after. This event, though outside the primary location of the study, provides context for the presence of lions in northern Roman territories.
Received October 15, 2024; Accepted February 8, 2025; Published April 23, 2025:
The publication of the research paper "Unique osteological evidence for human-animal gladiatorial combat in Roman Britain" in PLOS ONE, detailing the analysis of the bite marks on skeleton 6DT19 from Driffield Terrace, York.
Cast of Characters
Individual 6DT19: A male skeleton, aged 26-35 at the time of death, excavated from the Driffield Terrace cemetery in York. He was decapitated, and his pelvis exhibits peri-mortem bite marks likely from a large felid such as a lion. Isotopic analysis suggests origins at a lower latitude and warmer climate, potentially within the southern or western parts of Britain.
Emperor Caracalla (Mentioned): Roman Emperor whose alleged massacre in AD 211 was initially considered as a possible explanation for the Driffield Terrace burials but was later discounted due to the burials spanning a longer period.
Septimius Severus (Mentioned): Roman Emperor (AD 193-211) who originated from North Africa (Leptis Magna). His presence in York (Eboracum) with his sons highlights connections between the city and North Africa, potentially relevant to the introduction of exotic animals for spectacles.
Clodius Albinus (Mentioned): Former governor of Britain whose rebellion was supported by the legion in York. His defeat by Septimius Severus in AD 193 may have led to changes in legionary personnel and increased North African influence in York.
Leo Flammefer (Mentioned): The 'fiery lion,' a possible stage name of a lion depicted on the late third-century AD Rudston mosaic, suggesting a known animal performer in British venationes.
Taurus Omicida (Mentioned): 'Killer the bull,' a possible stage name of a bull depicted on the late third-century AD Rudston mosaic, indicating another known animal performer.
Thompson TJU: Lead author of the research paper analyzing the skeletal evidence from Driffield Terrace, including the bite marks on 6DT19.
Errickson D: Co-author of the research paper, specializing in animal attacks and forensic taphonomy, whose prior experimental work on felid scavenging was crucial for the analysis.
McDonnell C: Co-author of the research paper.
Holst M: Co-author of the research paper and co-author of a previous osteological analysis of the Driffield Terrace burials.
Caffell A: Co-author of the research paper and co-author of a previous osteological analysis of the Driffield Terrace burials.
Pearce J: Co-author of the research paper, whose work focuses on Roman Britain, including burial practices and spectacle culture.
Sandra Lösch: Editor of the PLOS ONE journal who oversaw the publication of the research.
Hunter-Mann K: Archaeologist from the York Archaeological Trust who has published reports on the Driffield Terrace excavations.
Müldner G: Researcher involved in multi-isotope investigations of the Driffield Terrace burials.
Martiniano R & Speidel L: Researchers involved in genomic analysis of individuals from Britain, including those from Driffield Terrace.
Ville G (Mentioned): Author of a work on gladiatorial combat in the Western Roman Empire.
Coleman KM (Mentioned): Scholar of Roman spectacle and the arena.
Jennison G (Mentioned): Author of a book on animals used for show and pleasure in ancient Rome.
Mackinnon M (Mentioned): Researcher on the supply of exotic animals for Roman amphitheatre games.
Sparreboom A (Mentioned): Scholar specializing in hunting spectacles in Roman North Africa.
Ling R (Mentioned): Expert on inscriptions on Romano-British mosaics and wall-paintings.
Pitts M (Mentioned): Author who has re-examined the 'African-style' Severan pottery from York.
Swan V (Mentioned): Researcher on the presence of African legionaries in Britain, particularly within Legio VI.
Parlasca K (Mentioned): Scholar of Roman mosaics in Germany.
Stern H (Mentioned): Author of a comprehensive collection of mosaics from Roman Gaul.
Thomas R (Mentioned): Author of a work on Roman wall painting in Cologne.
Thonemann P (Mentioned): Author of a work on Lucian, which includes an account of the abortive lion sacrifice at Carnuntum.
Papini M (Mentioned): Author on the visual representation of gladiatorial combat and beast hunts.
Houston JA (Mentioned): Researcher on the Roman exotic beast trade.
Nelis-Clement J (Mentioned): Scholar exploring the environmental implications of Roman spectacles.
Lindberg N (Mentioned): Researcher on the acquisition of exotic beasts for imperial venationes.
Dr Rebecca Strong & Roland Wessling: Individuals acknowledged for their assistance with scanning, photography, and 3D modeling of the remains.
6. FAQ
1. What kind of evidence suggests the presence of gladiatorial combat in the Roman Empire? Archaeological evidence across the Roman Empire indicates gladiatorial combat through the presence of amphitheatres, visual representations of arena combat (like mosaics and sculptures), training complexes, and occasionally the skeletal remains of gladiators. The most direct evidence is trauma found on the skeletons of individuals believed to be gladiators, such as healed fractures and injuries consistent with blunt and sharp force trauma seen in interpersonal combat within the arena. Examples include the gladiator cemetery at Ephesus and skeletal fragments found in London.
2. Besides person-to-person combat, what other forms of spectacle were common in Roman amphitheatres? Roman amphitheatres also frequently staged 'beast hunts' (venationes), where trained performers (venatores or bestiarii) armed with weapons would confront and 'hunt' various wild animals, including large cats (lions, tigers, leopards), bears, and large herbivores. Animals were also used as agents of execution in a practice known as 'damnatio ad bestias', where criminals, captives, and others were subjected to mutilation or death by wild animals. These events sometimes included re-enactments of myths as executions.
3. What makes the skeletal remains found at Driffield Terrace in York, England, unusual? The Driffield Terrace cemetery in York exhibits several exceptional features. It has a very high proportion of decapitation burials (around 70%), with many decapitations performed from back to front, a method more commonly associated with execution rather than funerary rituals. Additionally, the demographic analysis shows a strong male bias (mostly males aged 18-45) and a higher prevalence of healed ante-mortem trauma consistent with repeated interpersonal violence compared to other sites, including the known gladiator burial ground at Ephesus. Isotopic analyses also reveal a wide range of dietary and geographical origins among the individuals buried there.
4. What specific skeletal evidence found at Driffield Terrace suggests human-animal combat? Analysis of the pelvis of one individual (6DT19) from Driffield Terrace revealed a series of peri-mortem depressions and indentations. Detailed 3D scanning and comparison with bite marks from modern large carnivores, particularly felids like lions, strongly suggest that these lesions were caused by the teeth of a large cat. This provides the first direct osteological evidence for human-animal gladiatorial combat in Roman Britain.
5. How was the identification of the bite marks on the Driffield Terrace skeleton achieved? The identification involved re-examining the skeleton and using a non-contact structured light scanner to create detailed 3D models of the lesions. These models allowed for precise measurements and comparisons of the shape, size, depth, and location of the marks with known bite marks from various large carnivores (lions, tigers, leopards, bears, and dogs) obtained from forensic and zoological research, including experimental studies on animal scavenging. The characteristics of the lesions on the pelvis of 6DT19 were found to be most consistent with those produced by a large felid, likely a lion.
6. What does the evidence of a lion bite in Roman York tell us about spectacle culture in Britain? The discovery of a lion bite mark on a skeleton in York provides significant new direct testimony about spectacle culture in Roman Britain. It suggests that large and exotic animals like lions were indeed present in Britain and potentially used in arena events, either as combatants or as agents of execution. This strengthens interpretations of visual evidence like mosaics (e.g., the Rudston mosaic) and artifacts that depict animal spectacles and offers insights into the types of performances that might have occurred in British amphitheatres, even though direct structural evidence for specific performances is limited.
7. What were the logistical implications of having large exotic animals like lions in Roman Britain? The presence of lions in Britain implies a significant logistical undertaking involving the long-distance transport of wild animals from their native habitats (like North Africa) to the northern fringes of the Roman Empire. This would have required specialized infrastructure for capture, containment (boxes and cages), transportation by ships and wagons, provision of food and water, and the expertise of animal keepers and trainers. It suggests the existence of networks and possibly organizations (like the sodalitates of animal hunters attested in North Africa) involved in the movement and management of these animals across the empire.
8. How does this new evidence contribute to our broader understanding of Roman spectacle and society? The direct osteological evidence of human-animal combat in York enriches our understanding of the variety and reach of Roman spectacle culture beyond the well-documented events in Rome itself. It highlights the potential for local variations in spectacle based on the availability of resources and local preferences. Furthermore, it suggests that civic elites, and even the emperor, could have used such spectacles to project power, showcase generosity, and reinforce social hierarchies in provincial cities like York. The findings also underscore the interconnectedness of the Roman Empire, demonstrating the long-distance movement of both people and exotic animals to even its more distant regions.
7. Table of Contents
Introduction (00:00) Overview of the surprising discovery of physical evidence of humans fighting animals in Roman Britain, specifically lion bite marks found in York.
The Driffield Terrace Cemetery (01:38) Description of the unusual cemetery in York (Roman Eburacum), its location along a main road, and the high percentage of decapitated remains.
Population Demographics (03:14) Analysis of the cemetery's population, mostly men aged 18-45, with few women or children, and discussion of SK-37, buried with iron rings around his ankles.
Evidence of Violence (04:26) Discussion of healed injuries found on the skeletons, including skull fractures, broken teeth, and other trauma consistent with repeated violent encounters.
Diverse Origins (05:42) Exploration of isotopic analyses showing the individuals came from various geographical regions, with genetic links to the Middle East and Scandinavia.
Theories About the Cemetery (06:20) Examination of various theories about the cemetery's purpose, including mass execution site and the compelling idea of a familia gladiatoria (gladiator troop).
Skeleton 60T19 (08:05) Detailed description of the key skeleton with potential bite marks, including age, height, origin, and burial position.
The Bite Marks (09:22) Analysis of the marks found on both sides of the pelvis, including descriptions of the indentations, crushed areas, and bone fragments still embedded in the lesions.
Forensic Analysis (10:38) Explanation of the 3D structured light scanning technique used to create detailed digital models of the bone damage for comparison with known bite patterns.
Bite Pattern Comparison (11:35) Comparison of the bite marks with those known to be caused by various animals, including big cats, dogs, bears, and wild boars, concluding the marks are most consistent with lion bites.
Alternative Explanations (14:00) Assessment of other potential causes of the marks, including weapon injuries and post-burial damage, with evidence supporting the lion bite theory.
Roman Entertainment in Britain (15:22) Discussion of Roman entertainment practices, particularly beast hunts (venationes), and the limited archaeological evidence for such events in Britain.
Visual Evidence (16:54) Examination of visual depictions of animal combat on pottery, mosaics, and artifacts found in Britain, including the Rudston Venus Mosaic and the Leicester key handle.
Animal Bone Evidence (18:30) Discussion of the scarcity of exotic animal remains at British amphitheater sites compared to other Roman sites like Viminacium in Serbia.
York's Significance (20:04) Analysis of York's importance as a major Roman center, visited by emperors and governed by wealthy officials who could sponsor spectacular events.
North African Connections (22:03) Exploration of the links between York and North Africa during the Severan dynasty, including pottery styles, trade connections, and potential routes for transporting African animals.
Logistics of Animal Transport (23:25) Discussion of the complex logistics involved in transporting wild African animals to northern Europe, including specialized handlers and infrastructure.
Broader Implications (24:32) Assessment of how this discovery affects our understanding of spectacle culture across Roman Britain and neighboring provinces.
Conclusion (26:00) Summary of the significance of the discovery and its implications for our understanding of Roman entertainment, logistics, and environmental impact.
8. Index
Acrobats performing with animals, 17:38 ASIS (anterior superior iliac spine), 09:56 Amphitheaters, 05:00, 15:43, 16:20, 18:42 Animal bones, 08:28, 18:30, 19:10 Animal keepers, 23:54 Animal transport, 23:25, 24:04
Bears, 13:38, 18:55
Bite marks, 09:22, 10:38, 12:10, 13:02, 14:32 Bite patterns, 11:35, 12:35 Bull, 17:40, 18:55
Caracalla, Emperor, 06:38 Carnivore tooth shapes, 12:54 Carnuntum, 25:19 Caroleon amphitheater, 16:27 Cassius Dio, 25:17 Cats, big, 12:10, 12:40, 25:08 Cemetery, Driffield Terrace, 01:38, 05:14, 06:20 Chester amphitheater, 19:02 Clodius Albinus, 22:54 Colchester pottery, 17:08 Cologne frescoes, 25:09
Damnatio ad bestias, 18:05, 21:08 Decapitation, 02:28, 03:02, 06:42, 09:00, 14:36 Dogs, 13:22, 17:14 Driffield Terrace Cemetery, 01:38, 05:14, 06:20
Eburacum (Roman York), 01:46, 16:30
Ephesus gladiator cemetery, 05:08, 06:58 Execution, 02:43, 06:32, 21:08
Familia gladiatoria, 07:30, 07:56 Forensic analysis, 10:38
Gladiator troop, 07:30 Gladiators, 05:06, 06:54, 07:30, 07:56
Hadrian's Wall, 21:22 Head injuries, 05:06, 06:54 Healed injuries, 04:38, 05:02, 06:50 Hip bone (ilium), 09:56
Iliac crest, 09:54 Ilium, 09:56 Injuries, healed, 04:38, 05:02, 06:50 Iron rings, 03:48 Isotopic analyses, 05:42, 08:52
Key handle, Leicester, 17:52, 20:32
Late Ebor ware, 22:20 Legion, 6th Legion Victrix, 07:50, 22:50 Legionary fortress, 01:50, 07:50, 20:04, 25:20 Leptis Magna, 22:14 Leopard, 12:14, 17:40, 18:58, 24:54 Leicester key handle, 17:52, 20:32 Lion, 13:50, 17:40, 18:06, 20:56, 22:36, 25:08 Lion bite, 12:54, 13:56, 15:04, 20:32, 26:04
Military connections, 07:52 Mosaics, 04:06, 15:45, 17:22, 20:36, 24:26, 25:02 Mosaic, Great Hunt (Piazza Armarina), 24:14 Mosaic, Nennig (Germany), 25:06 Mosaic, Rheims (France), 25:08 Mosaic, Rudston Venus's, 17:28, 20:34, 21:38
Nain Valley pottery, 17:06 Nennig mosaic, 25:06 North Africa, 08:56, 22:03, 22:28, 24:16
Pelvis, bite marks on, 09:22, 09:54, 13:48
Rheims mosaic, 25:08 Rome, city of, 15:26, 19:24 Rudston Venus's Mosaic, 17:28, 20:34, 21:38
Scavenging, 14:10, 14:22 Septimius Severus, 20:18 Severan dynasty, 22:03, 22:12 Silchester amphitheater, 16:28 Skeleton 60T19, 08:05, 09:22, 13:42, 14:02 Skeleton SK-37, 03:46 Sodalitates, 24:00 Spectacle culture, 21:40, 24:32, 26:14 Stag, 17:40, 18:55 Structured light scanning, 3D, 10:55
Taphonomic damage, 14:30 Telegeni, 24:02 Tooth shapes, carnivore, 12:54
Venationes (beast hunts), 15:25, 17:14, 21:30 Venators (hunters), 17:42 Viminacium, 19:14, 25:14
Weapon injuries, 14:02 Wild boar, 13:44, 18:55
York (Roman Eburacum), 01:46, 16:30, 20:04, 22:03
9. Poll
10. Post-Episode Fact Check
The content of this episode appears to be largely factual and based on archaeological research. The main points align with established archaeological findings:
Driffield Terrace Cemetery: This is a real archaeological site in York with the unusual characteristics described (high percentage of decapitated remains, mostly male population).
Evidence of trauma: The discussion of healed injuries on skeletons matches patterns found in confirmed gladiator cemeteries.
Skeleton with bite marks: The description of the analysis using 3D structured light scanning to identify lion bite marks appears to be based on actual research methodology.
York's importance: The historical information about York (Eburacum) being a major Roman center is accurate. Septimius Severus did indeed die there in 211 CE.
North African connections: The discussion of Severan dynasty connections to North Africa and the presence of North African influences in York is historically accurate.
However, a few points should be noted:
The podcast presents the lion bite mark evidence as conclusive when real archaeological findings usually come with more caveats and alternative explanations.
The specific details about skeleton 60T19 appear to be presented from a research paper, but without citation, so I cannot verify if these exact measurements and findings are accurate.
Some of the speculation about the logistics of animal transport, while plausible, goes beyond what could be directly evidenced from the archaeological record.
Overall, the content appears to be a factual discussion of archaeological findings with some reasonable interpretations and hypotheses, though presented in a dramatic podcast format that may simplify some of the scientific complexity.
11. Image (3000 x 3000 pixels)
